Multiculturalism

Multiculturalism

1- INTRODUCTION

English teacher proposes us to realize a individual work about Multiculturalism, to value us. I decide to do a definition of multiculturalism and a multiculturalism’s history in some countries.

With multiculturalism we learn more about others peoples, about them usages custums and religion.

We must respect immigrants because we could be also an immigrant. All people in the world have the same rights and all of us have dignity and freedom to make choices. We must be tolerance with immigrants and teach them ours custums and learn they custums and learn foreign languages. This is positive to both sides.

Not respect the others and they dignity is against the human rights. Because we all are differents and we all are equals.

To realize this work I consult the dictionary and the internet.

2- WHAT IS MULTICULTURALISM?

Unfortunately, definitions of "multiculturalism" vary widely, so much so that I doubt that any general consensus exists as to what the term denotes precisely. This multitude of definitions also raises some important questions that may or may not be easily resolved: Is multiculturalism the study of foreign cultures or of cultures from all over the world? Is multiculturalism synonymous with the term "diversity"? Does multiculturalism implicitly involve teaching tolerance by studying racism, prejudice, and stereotypes? Should women, the handicapped, and gays/lesbians/bisexuals be included under the umbrella of "multiculturalism"? Can there be a universal definition of "multiculturalism," or will different countries necessarily have different definitions?

Let's begin with a basic dictionary definition of "multicultural":

“for or including people of many different races, languages, religions and customs”

Multiculturalism is the idea or belief that modern societies should embrace and include distinct cultural groups with equal cultural and political status. Multiculturalism is a term often used to describe the cultural and ethnic diversity of a nation and advocates of it often argue that diversity is a positive force for a society’s nationhood or cultural identity.

Multiculturalism is the idea that it is good for a society to contain more than one culture. A culture is a way of living that is passed on from generation to generation. It includes things like how people dress, where they live, what they eat, what religions they practice and other customs and beliefs. In the past, people from the same country usually shared the same culture. However, today it is easier for people to move from one country to another, and so some cultures can now be found all over the globe.

Australia is a multicultural country because it contains people from many different cultures around the world. All of these cultures contribute to the overall Australian way of life, giving us a diverse range of foods, religions, businesses and ideas in one nation.

Multiculturalism is a particular socialcondition of racial and ethnic or cultural diversity resulting from immigration; it is a complex network of laws and policies for managing that diversity; and it is a vision of a free and diverse society in which all individuals live peacefully and amicably on a footing of equality with each other

In order to protect our diverse range of cultures, we need recognise people’s differences and encourage them, instead of expecting everyone to be the same and act in the same way.

In order to continue to enjoy the rewards of having a multicultural society, people must:

Respect other cultures by giving everyone the right to express their own beliefs and practice their own way of life.

Treat all Australians equally, without discriminating against then because of their race, culture, religion, language or gender.

Support the laws and regulations of our society and contribute to our local communities.

3- MULTICULTURALISM IN THE WORLD

Multiculturalism began as an official policy in India in 1950 with the adoption of its new Constitution. In the English-speaking countries it started in Canada in 1971 It was quickly adopted by most member-states in the European Union, as official policy, and as a social consensus among the elite.

But multiculturalism's history is not limited to official policy in the English-speaking world. As a philosophy it began its evolution, first as part of philosophy's pragmatism movement at the end of the nineteenth century in Britain and in the United States, then as political and cultural pluralism by the turn of the twentieth. It was partly in response to a new wave of European imperialism in sub-Saharan Africa and the massive immigration of Southern and Eastern Europeans to the United States and Latin America. Philosophers, psychologists and historians (including a couple who laid the foundations for sociology as a field) the idea of a plural society would be crucial in the formation of philosophical and social humanism," that the embracing of a multicultural society could help build a better, more egalitarian society.

Multiculturalism has its supporters and critics alike. Its supporters often see it as a self-evident entitlement of cultural groups, as a form of civil rights grounded in equality of cultures. They often assume it will lead to interculturalism - beneficial cultural exchanges, where cultures learn about each other's literature, art and philosophy , and influence each other's music, fashion and cuisine. Its opponents often see it as something which has been imposed on them without their consent. Opponents of multiculturalism see it as inherently divisive and fear it will lead to cultural ghettos, undermining national unity. In Europe especially, opponents see multiculturalism as a direct assault on the national identity, and on the nation itself, and sometimes as a conspiracy to Islamize Europe.

It may be an anachronism to speak of multiculturalism in historical societies which did not use the term, especially before modernity. The degree of cultural homogeneity in past societies also depends on their size: smaller groups are more likely to show cultural unity. However, it is clear that in the past large states, especially empires, lacked the cultural unity of modern nation-states, and lacked the means to create it.

The monocultural nation-state Ideal Europe Especially in the 19th century, the ideology of nationalism transformed the way Europeans thought about the state. Existing states were broken up and new ones created: in the associated wars, millions of people died. The new nation-states were founded on the principle that each nation is entitled to its own sovereign state, to reflect, facilitate, and protect its own unique culture and history. Unity, under this ideology, is seen as an essential feature of the nation and the nation-state - unity of descent, unity of culture, unity of language, and often unity of religion. The nation-state implies a culturally homogeneous society, although some national movements recognized regional differences. None of them, however, accepted "foreign" elements in culture and society. The older multilingual and multi-ethnic empires, such as the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire were derided as oppressive, and most Europeans no longer accept that such a state can be legitimate. British political thought was slower in accepting the implications of the concept of the nation-state.

Where the cultural unity insufficient, it was encouraged (and enforced) by the state. The 19th-century nation-states developed an array of policies: the most important was compulsory primary education in the national language. The language itself was often standardized by a linguistic academy, and regional languages were ignored or suppressed. Some nation-states pursued violent and oppressive policies of cultural assimilation, not to mention ethnic cleansing. Recently, Monoculturalism is being supported more than previous years due to events occurring in the recent past.

In the United States, continuous mass immigration had been a feature of economy and society since the first half of the 19th century. There was no fiction that the immigrants would return: immigration was seen as a permanent choice for a new country. The absorption of the stream of immigrants became, in itself, a prominent feature of the national mythos, along with the expansion westwards. As a result, several immigrant communities maintained a non-English language for generations. The nature of American national identity, with its emphasis on symbolic patriotism, allegiance, national values and a national mythos, facilitated the assimilation of immigrants. The Australian continent was not a single 'nation', but had many indigenous cultures and between 200 and 400 active languages at any one time. The present nation of Australia resulted from a deliberate process of immigration intended to fill the "empty" continent. The earliest people that were not indigenous to the continent to live in Australia were settlers from the United Kingdom, after 1800 including Ireland. Dutch colonization and possible visits to Australia by explorers and/or traders from China, did not lead to permanent settlement.

Proposals to limit immigration by nationality were intended to maintain the cultural and political identity of the colonies as part of the British Empire. The White Australia policy, which in various forms lasted 150 years but was not "official" policy per se for much of that time, was the most comprehensive policy of this type in the world. Such policies theoretically limit the cultural diversity of the immigrant population, and in theory facilitate the cultural assimilation of the immigrants, since they would come from related cultures. Taken from a historical perspective, however, this was not a matter of cultural diversity or otherwise, but maintenance of the British Empire aspects of the colony.

Canada

In Canada, multiculturalism was adopted in 1971. The report of the Commission advocated that the Canadian government should recognize Canada as a bilingual and bicultural society and adopt policies to preserve this character. Biculturalism was attacked from many directions.

Progressive Conservative Party saw multiculturalism as an attack on his vision of unhyphenated Canadianism. It did not satisfy the growing number of young francophones who gravitated towards Quebec nationalism. While many Canadians disliked the new policies of biculturalism and official bilingualism, the strongest opposition came from Canadians of neither English nor French descent, the so-called "Third Force" Canadians. Biculturalism did not accord with local realities in the western provinces, where the French population was tiny compared to other cultural minorities. To accommodate them, the formula was changed from "bilingualism and biculturalism" to "bilingualism and multiculturalism."

On a more practical level, federal funds began to be distributed to ethnic groups to help them preserve their cultures. Projects typically funded included folk dancing competitions and the construction of ethnic-oriented community centres. This led to criticisms that the policy was actually motivated by electoral considerations rather than Trudeau's vision of a Just Society.

The policy was added to Canada's 1982 constitution, in section 27 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.

Canadian multiculturalism is looked upon with admiration by many world. In a 2002 interview with the Globe and Mail, the 49th Imam of the Ismaili Muslims described Canada as "the most successful pluralist society on the face of our globe" citing it as "a model for the world." He explained that the experience of Canadian governance - its commitment to pluralism and its support for the rich multicultural diversity of its peoples - is something that must be shared and would be of benefit societies in other parts of the world.

Approximately 35% of today's Canadian citizens were born outside Canada. Recent immigrants are largely concentrated in the cities of Vancouver, Montreal and Toronto, which have high population growth due to this concentrated immigration.

To many French Canadians, multiculturalism threatened to reduce them to just another ethnic group. Of all Canadian provinces, Quebec has been the least supportive of multiculturalism.

This policy seeks to integrate immigrants into the mainstream French-speaking society of Quebec on the basis of French, the language of the majority, as the common public language of all Québécois.

Australia

The other country to have most fully adopted Canadian-style multiculturalism is Australia, with many similar policies. In the 1970s, the White Australia Policy was removed from the political landscape. This eventually led to the policy of multiculturalism. It may be argued that this was merely part of the process of Australia establishing a national identity separate from England.

The definition of multiculturalism has changed enormously since that time in Australia. Originally meaning the acceptance by the mainstream population that some members of the community came from different cultures and still had ties to it, it came to mean the acceptance of the presence of other "cultures" within mainstream Australia. It is now often used to refer to the fact that very many people in Australia have, and recognize, multiple cultural or ethnic backgrounds. The Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs in Australia estimated that, in 2005, 25% of the Australian workforce was born outside of Australia and 40% had at least one parent born outside of Australia.

The response to multiculturalism in Australia has been extremely varied, with a recent wave of criticism against it in the past decade. An anti-immigration party, the One Nation Party, was formed in the late 1990s. The party enjoyed significant electoral success for a while, most notably in its home state of Queensland, but is now electorally marginalized. In its 1998 policy document on Immigration, Population and Social Cohesion, One Nation labelled multiculturalism a "threat to the very basis of the Australian culture, identity and shared values. Threats to our freedom of speech, the freedom of the individual overtaken by group rights, funding given on the basis of ethnicity and race rather than need and our people divided into separate ethnic groups which are funded to stay that way. We see no reason why migrant cultures should be maintained at the expense of our shared, national culture." According to One Nation, multiculturalism in combination with high immigration was leading to "the Asianisation of Australia

Opposition to multiculturalism in Australia is, as of 2006, focused on the position of Islamic immigrants from Middle Eastern countries. Prior to the September 11 attacks, the main targets of anti-immigration campaigns were immigrants from southern Europe, and later east Asia.

A Federal Government proposal in 2006 to introduce a compulsory citizenship test, which would assess English skills and knowledge of Australian values, sparked renewed debate over the future of multiculturalism in Australia

United States

In the United States multiculturalism is not an official policy at the federal level. At the state level, it is sometimes associated with English-Spanish bilingualism. However, the government, in recent years, has moved to support many multiculturalist policies. For instance, California drivers can take their exams in a number of languages as they can in most Canadian provinces.

In the United States especially, multiculturalism became associated with political correctness and with the rise of ethnic identity politics. In the 1980s and 1990s many criticisms were expressed, from both the left and right, although predominantly from the right wing.

Criticism of multiculturalism in the US was not always synonymous with opposition to immigration. Some politicians did address both themes, notably Pat Buchanan, who in 1993 described multiculturalism as "an across-the-board assault on our Anglo-American heritage."

Buchanan and other paleoconservatives argue that multiculturalism is the ideology of the modern managerial state, an ongoing regime that remains in power, regardless of what political party holds a majority. It acts in the name of abstract goals, such as equality or positive rights, and uses its claim of moral superiority, power of taxation and wealth redistribution to keep itself in power.

The critics of multiculturalism argues that some forms of multiculturalism can divide people, although they need to unite in order to fight for social justice.

The United Kingdom has continuous high immigration rates, among the highest in the EU. Most of the immigrants of the last decades came from the Indian sub-continent or the Caribbean. Recently, the largest group of immigrants is from eastern Europe, especially from Poland.

Malaysia

The Malay Peninsula has a long history of international trade contacts, influencing its ethnic and religious composition. Predominantly Malays before the 18th century, the ethnic composition changed dramatically when the British introduced new industries, and imported Chinese and Indian labour. Several regions in the then British Malaya such as Penang, Malacca and Singapore became Chinese dominated. Co-existence between the three ethnicities (and other minor groups) was largely peaceful, despite the fact the immigration affected the demographic and cultural position of the Malays.

The formation of Malaysia itself was burdened with the 'mathematics of race'. The then Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman would only accept Singapore as a member of the federation if Sarawak and North Borneo were admitted too. The Prime Minister's rationale was that the inclusion of Singapore into a new federation would make the Chinese the new majority power, at the expense of the Malays. Inclusion of the Borneo states, on the other hand, would maintain a Malay majority.

Ethnic tensions followed the formation of Malaysia in 1963. The worst race riot — the May 13 Incident — occurred in 1969, again between Chinese and Malays.

Malaysia is the only country outside of China that has a Chinese education system.

The Netherlands

In the 1950s, the Netherlands was generally a mono-ethnic and monocultural society: it was not monolingual, but almost everyone could speak standard Dutch. Its inhabitants shared a classic national identity, with a national mythos emphasising the Dutch Golden Age, and national heroes. Major immigration in the form of labour migration began in the 1960s, and accelerated in the 1970s, with Morocco and Turkey as the main origin countries. From the 1970s, multiculturalism was a consensus ideology among the 'political class', and determined official policy.

The elite consensus on multiculturalism co-existed with widespread aversion to immigration, and an ethnic definition of the Dutch nation. Dutch nationalism, and support for a traditional national identity, never disappeared, but were not visible.

The multicultural policy consensus regarded the presence of immigrant cultural communities as non-problematic, or beneficial. Immigration was not subject to limits on cultural grounds: in practice, the immigration rate was determined by demand for unskilled labour, and later by migration of family members. Net immigration, and the higher birth rate of the immigrant communities, have transformed the Netherlands since the 1950s. Although the majority are still ethnic Dutch, in 2006 one fifth of the population was of non-Dutch ethnicity, about half of which were of non-western origin. Immigration transformed Dutch cities especially: in Amsterdam, 55% of young people are of non-western origin (mainly Turkish and Moroccan).. For opponents of multiculturalism and immigration, this is unacceptable and wrong.

Germany

Multiculturalism was more controversial in Germany, and the policy consensus weaker, than in Britain and the Netherlands. German history makes policy on minorities and national identity a delicate issue.

France

French political thought is generally reluctant to endorse multiculturalism, which it often identifies with communitarism, which is in turn perceived as in contradiction with French republican values. French official policy pursues integration. The multi-racial character of much of French urban society is an evidence and official policy is generally favourable to métissage.

Islam, Europe and multiculturalism

There is a developing distaste toward the idea and policies of multiculturalism in Europe, especially, like stated earlier, in the Netherlands, Denmark, United Kingdom and Germany with many others starting to build up their dislike and disagreement with multiculturalism and how it actually creates friction within society. This is not just Christianity against Islam, as many are led to believe as this is not the case. For example Bosnia and Herzegovina which could be termed as a Muslim country are disliking multiculturalism, like living with Christians. As the population that have a majority do not want their country and its traditions to be eradicated by immigrants. Although this is quite obviously a difficult issue to discuss, it must be a priority as it needs to be observed and debated.

From the 1990s, especially in Europe, the debate on multiculturalism began to focus on Islam and its status in the Western World. In several European countries, the majority of immigrants are from Islamic countries - Algeria, Morocco and Turkey. Although not all of them are practicing Muslims, their religion became a powerful symbol of their essential difference from the surrounding national community.

The examples cited by opponents of multiculturalism to show what they considered unacceptable, were increasingly Islam-related - female genital cutting and honour killings, for instance. (Many Muslims dispute that these practices have nothing to do with Islam). The opponents began to appeal to a Clash of Civilisations perspective, seeing Islam as incompatible with democracy and western culture. The emergence of Islamist terrorism confirmed, in their eyes, the dangers of multiculturalism and immigration from Muslim countries.

In Canada, the possible introduction of sharia family courts became a contentious issue, and received much media attention.

The multiculturalism issue merged with the immigration policy issue.

Post-multiculturalism in Europe

Following the collapse of the consensus on multiculturalism, several European Union countries have introduced policies for 'social cohesion', 'integration', and (sometimes) 'assimilation'. They are sometimes a direct reversal of earlier multiculturalist policies, and seek to assimilate immigrant minorities. They include restriction of immigration - assimilation and immigration law on new immigrants are no longer seen as separate issues. The policies include:

compulsory language courses in the national language, assessed by a compulsory language test - for immigrants, and in some cases for those of immigrant descent

compulsory courses and/or tests on national history, on the constitution and the legal system, see Life in the United Kingdom test introduction of an official national history.

official campaigns to promote national unity, and individual identification with the nation .Official lists of national values, and tests of acceptance of these values restriction on spouses or children joining immigrants already in the country, and age and income restrictions on non-western marriage partners, sometimes with language tests for potential spouses, in their country of origin official declarations - so far not laws - specifying that only the national language may be spoken in certain areas. language prohibitions in schools, universities, and public buildings. Language bans have also been proposed for public transport and hospitals. Prohibitions on Islamic dress and especially the burqa. Introduction of an oath of allegiance or loyalty oath for immigrants, usually following naturalisation, and usually during a compulsory ceremony.

Although these policies often have the stated aim of increasing national unity, one result has been an increased polarisation. With the disappearance of former taboos, open criticism of the culture and values of specific minorities became common. Muslims in Britain or the Netherlands may occasionally hear that their culture is backward, that western culture is superior, and that they have a duty to adopt it. In turn, overly-defensive reactions include an increased self-identification as 'Muslims', and adoption of Islamic dress by women and 'Islamic' beards by men. Part of the Muslim minority is now alienated and hostile to the society they live in, and sympathetic to terrorism. In Amsterdam's secondary schools, about half the Moroccan minority does not identify with the Netherlands: they see their identity as 'Muslim', and regularly express anti-western views. In turn society is increasingly hostile to Muslims: a survey showed that 18% in Britain think that "a large proportion of British Muslims feel no sense of loyalty to this country and are prepared to condone or even carry out acts of terrorism". A TNS/Global poll showed that 79% in Britain would feel "uncomfortable living next to a Muslim". A major attitude survey of teenagers in Flanders showed that 75% refuse to have a relationship with a black person, a Muslim, or an immigrant. Half want all immigration stopped, and 41% say they distrust anyone from another ethnic background.

The rejection of the multicultural consensus in Europe included the revival of a traditional national identity, often defined by ethnicity. Paradoxically, that excludes not only first-generation immigrants, but their identifiable descendants, from full membership of the nation. New terms for minorities of immigrant descent have come into use. The renewed emphasis on historical culture places higher demands on cultural assimilation. Immigrants must learn to identify and describe cultural heroes and historical figures .The adoption of semi-official 'national values' may occasionally undermine the national unity, which it is supposed to promote.

4- ADOPTION AS POLICY

Multiculturalism was adopted as official policy, in several nations from the 1970s onward, for reasons that varied from country to country.

Government multicultural policies can include:

*recognition of multiple citizenship (the multiple citizenship itself usually results from the nationality laws of another country)

*government support for newspapers, television, and radio in minority languages

*support for minority festivals, holidays, and celebrations

*acceptance of traditional and religious dress in schools, the military, and society in general

*support for music and arts from minority cultures

*programs to encourage minority representation in politics, SET (Science, Engineering and Technology), Mathematics, education, and the work force in general.

5- CONCLUSION

I see multiculturalism primarily as an unacceptable ideology of cultural relativism, which would lead to acceptance of barbaric practices, including those brought to the Western World by immigrants. I remember infanticide, torture, slavery, oppression of women, homophobia, racism, anti-Semitism, gangs, female circumcision, discrimination by immigrants, suttee, and the death penalty. Cliteur compares multiculturalism to the moral acceptance of Auschwitz, Stalin, Pol Pot and the Ku Klux Klan.

The intellectual rejection of multiculturalism was accompanied by a political transformation, which led to the abandonment of official multiculturalism.

The historical event of multiculturalism brings with it many complicated conceptual problems, causing a rich debate over what multiculturalism is or should mean.

Most controversial in this regard is the movement known as "Afrocentrism," which in various versions seeks to document the centrality of African cultural traditions to the foundation of American and Western history, and to celebrate that African tradition so as to increase the self-esteem and educational success of African-American students. Critics of Afrocentrism dispute both its intellectual claims the scholarship and historical conclusions it advances and its educational claims specially regarding the effect of an ethnically-centered curriculum on the academic achievement of students.

Still, most analysts admit that in practice individuals belong to numerous different groups and have complex cultural identities. The theoretical term for analyzing people in terms of their group affiliations is "subject position." Each person occupies a variety of subject positions -- is positioned socially, economically, and politically -- by virtue of how his or her subjectivity is shaped by group identifications. A person may think of herself or be treated at one moment as a woman, at another moment as Asian, at another moment as upper-class, at another moment as elderly, at another moment as a lesbian--each time being either helped or hindered by the identification, depending on the circumstances. The various parts of our cultural identities may not add up to a neat and predictable whole. Multiculturalism, then, insofar as it groups individuals into categories, may overlook the practical reality that no one lives in just one box. Recent proponents of multiculturalism, indeed, have emphasized the multiculturalism within each individual.

REFERENCES

- DICIONÁRIO PORTUGUÊS-INGLÊS, INGLÊS-PORTUGUÊS. Porto Editora. Porto 1998. ISBN 972-0-05122-1

- OXFORD WORLDPOWER DICTIONARY. Osford University Press. Oxford, 2006. ISBN 0-19-439925-7.

- en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiculturalism

- urbact.eu/.../synthesis-and-prospect/introduction-on-inclusion-integration-and-diversity.html

- technorati.com/tag/multiculturalism

- www.uwm.edu/~gjay/Multicult/Multiculturalism.html

Ana Rita Santos e Lara Neves

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